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Understanding English: Sentence Parts, I

In order to understand how an engine works, you have to know what and where the parts are, and how they work. The same is true for English. Although English is one of the most complex and confusing languages on earth, it is possible to learn enough of the basics to understand most any sentence. If you hang in there with me, you could soon be translating Shakespeare or the King James Bible to your friends!
In this lesson we are going to look at the structure of a sentence, the frame, the very reason and way sentences work. For a sentence to be a sentence, you must have only two parts: the subject and the predicate.
The Subject
When you make a statement, you are focusing your attention on one particular item (or idea, or whatever). In the sentence Cats sleep, your attention is on cats. If you were to say My cats sleep in the sunshine, your attention is still on cats, right? The whole sentence is giving your audience information about cats. Now, if you were to say Sleeping is my cats’ favorite pastime, you’re not focusing on the cats anymore, you’re focusing on sleeping. The subject of a sentence is the focus of the sentence.
The Predicate
To give your audience information about your subject, you have to say something about it. Yes, that was a little obvious, but that’s what predicates are. A predicate is the word or group of words that says something—anything—about your subject. Let’s take the previous sentences as examples. In Cats sleep, the subject is cats, and we’re saying that they sleep, so that’s the predicate. In My cats sleep in the sunshine, the predicate is “sleep in the sunshine.” And in the last sentence, Sleeping is my cats’ favorite pastime, the predicate is everything after the word “sleeping.” Make sense?
Finding the Subject
To find the subject, read the entire sentence—out loud, if it helps—and figure out who or what is the main focus of the sentence. That’s pretty much the easy part, unless you have an understood subject. If the sentence is a command, Please feed the cats, then the subject is an understood “you.” You could have said Hey you, please feed the cats, but it’s just simpler to give the command if you know the person is already paying attention. Besides, it would get annoying if someone kept saying your name before every instruction.
The other time it might be difficult to find the subject is in long, complex sentences. Don’t worry about those for now, we’ll learn how to dissect them later. You have enough to remember for now, Grasshopper.
Finding the Predicate
Once you’ve found the subject, finding the predicate is easy. It’ll be all of the words that are referring to the subject. In our example sentences, all of the words except the subject itself are the predicate.
Practice
1. Define, in your own words, the subject and the predicate.
2. Explain, in your own words, how to find the subject and the predicate.
3. Put a single underline under every subject and a double underline under ever predicate in each of the example sentences. For the understood subjects, write the subject off to the side and underline it. If completing this practice on the computer, you may highlight the subject and predicate, using two different colors.

1. Winter is warmer in Tennessee.
2. Snow is white.
3. The weatherman is predicting snow.
4. Snow rarely falls in warm climates.
5. Will the snowflakes stick to the ground?
6. Please warm the car first.
7. Can we build a snowman?
8. Everyone loves snowmen.
9. Not everyone loves the cold.
10. Tiny snowflakes speckle my windshield.
11. Make sure to defrost the windshield.
12. Homeschoolers don’t often get snowdays.
13. Working adults don’t get snowdays either.
14. How quickly the snow melts in Tennessee!
15. Maybe we will see more snow next year.

Your or you’re?

One of the most common problems in the English language is the use of contractions. They are supposed to make life a little easier, but it seems that they don’t do much more than confuse. The case of your vs. you’re is a classic example.

I have said that the easiest way for me to remember the difference between two similar words is to focus on the meaning and use of one. If it’s not the one, then it must be the other. I’ll give you the meaning and use of both, and try to emphasize one to help you remember.

“Your” is possessive. When I use the word, I’m talking about something that belongs to you, or an attribute of you.

Example: Your cat is a beautiful calico.

“You’re” is a contraction. They say repetition is the key to memory: YOU’RE IS A CONTRACTION. That means we’re being lazy. We’ve dropped the letter “a” from the phrase “you are” and replaced it with an apostrophe.

Example: You’re going to need to buy me a new paper to replace the one your cat has destroyed.

See how “you’re”=”you are”? See also the difference between the two words in the same sentence? When I need to remember which word to use, I always say “you-apostrophe-r-e=you are.”

A note about “you’re”: Contractions (combining two words by dropping a letter or two and using an apostrophe) are always considered informal. If you are writing a paper for school (especially for English or certain non-writing teachers!), NEVER use contractions. It’s safer that way. Some writing teachers allow contractions occasionally because of the stated audience for the assignment.

Final tip: when in doubt, spell it out. You can’t spell out “your” because it is the whole possessive word. You can spell out “you’re” because you can write “you are” instead. If you spell it out, you’ll never go wrong.

“Your” is possessive. “You’re” is a contraction.

Its or It’s?

The difference between “its” and “it’s” is very important, but it can be hard to remember. Luckily for you, this diction problem is a pet peeve of mine. If you still have a question when you’re finished reading this post, I need to find a new hobby.

“It” is an impersonal pronoun for a thing. It is very useful when referring to the same thing multiple times in a short period. But what about when we’re talking about something that belongs to it? That’s when we use “its.”

Example: “It” is an over-ripe banana. I could say that “it is smelly,” or I could say “its atrocious smell is attracting rodents.”

“It’s” is always a contraction. Let me repeat that: “IT’S” IS ALWAYS A CONTRACTION. In other words, “it’s”=”it is.” Remember that the apostrophe is often used to represent a letter that has been dropped. To form this contraction, we’re dropping the extra “i.”

Example: Same over-ripe banana. I could say “It is going to become either banana bread or compost very soon,” or I could say “It’s going to become either banana bread or compost very soon.”

Note about “it’s”: Contractions (combining two words by dropping a letter or two and using an apostrophe) are always considered informal. If you are writing a paper for school (especially for English or certain non-writing teachers!), NEVER use contractions. It’s safer that way. Some writing teachers allow contractions occasionally because of the stated audience for the assignment.

How do I always figure out which to use? When I come to the word, I say “i-t-apostrophe-s=it is.” If I’m looking for “it is,” I use “it’s.” If I’m looking for the possessive form, I use “its.” I find it’s always easier to remember the difference between two similar words if you focus on the meaning and use of only one. If it’s not the one, then it must be the other.

Final tip: when in doubt, spell it out. You can’t spell out “its” because that’s the whole possessive word. You can spell out “it’s,” though, because you can write “it is” instead. If you spell it out, you can’t go wrong.

It is a pronoun. Its purpose is to reduce redundancy. It’s very common. And “it’s” is always a contraction.

When to use a colon

The colon is a very useful punctuation mark. It most often is used to replace the word “because.” In technical terms, the colon is used between independent clauses when the second is an explanation for the first. (A clause is a group of words that belong together; an independent clause is a group of words that have a subject and a verb.)

Example: “The colon is one of my favorite English tools: it helps keep my word count down and it organizes my thoughts.” Instead of ”The colon is one of my favorite English tools because it helps keep my word count down and it organizes my thoughts.”

The colon may be used to introduce a list. While it is not necessary to use a colon before a list, it often helps to make the list stand out. Make sure you never use a colon directly after a verb or preposition.

Bad Example: “A few of my favorite things are: raindrops on roses, whiskers on kittens, bright copper kettles, and warm woolen mittens.”

Better Example: “These are a few of my favorite things: raindrops on roses, whiskers on kittens, bright copper kettles, and warm woolen mittens.”

Sometimes the colon is used to formally introduce a statement or quote. More often these things are introduced with a simple “said,” (So-n-so said, “blah, blah, blah”). But sometimes formal writing requires a colon.

Example: “Benjamin Franklin once made this statement: ‘A great empire, like a great cake, is most easily diminished at the edges.’”

If this article has helped you, or if you have other questions about this topic, please let me know. Thanks!

When to use a semicolon

The semicolon should be one of the strongest punctuation marks in the English language. It may just be my Grammarian Opinion, of course, but I think the semicolon is the least understood mark of all. What is the purpose of this cool little sign? When is it needed and when is it in the way? To understand the semicolon, you’ll need to understand independent clauses.

Hold the phone! “Independent clauses”?!? What is a clause? What’s an independent clause?? Why does English have to be so complicated?

To work our way backwards, English is complicated because it’s really an art and a skill. That, and it’s a rather old, rather widely used language with a fascinating history. An independent clause is a clause that could stand on its own: it has a subject and a verb. A clause is a group of words that belong together. There’s more to learn about clauses and independent clauses, but that’s another lesson.

The semicolon is most often used to join two independent clauses. All punctuation is a substitute for a small group of words that could get redundant and annoying if left unsubstituted. The semicolon is used to substitute coordinating conjunctions (and, but, or, nor, for, yet) and the comma before them.

Example: “Walking is great exercise; I can’t seem to hit the treadmill after a long day.” Instead of “Walking is great exercise for the heart, but I can’t seem to hit the treadmill after a long day.”

Another time you might use the semicolon is if your clauses (independent or not) have commas in them.

Example: “Some of the best exercises are easy and fun: walking, running, or biking; swimming, either in a pool or a pond; rowing a boat, or using a paddle boat; even walking the dog.”

One very important thing to remember: the semicolon is a strong, meaningful punctuation mark. If you are not sure whether you should use it, don’t. It has the potential to change the message you mean to give.

If this article has helped you, or if you have other questions about this topic, please let me know. Thanks!

How to write a lead sentence

Writing lead sentences doesn’t have to be hard. The lead sentence (aka “topic sentence”) is the sentence that leads the rest of the paragraph. Whether it is the first sentence in the paragraph or it’s found somewhere in the middle, the lead sentence summarizes or states the point of the paragraph. There are thousands of different kinds of lead sentences: the paper-leader, the biographical sketch, the “given” statement, the transition, the teaser, and I could go on and on with my fake names for general lead sentence types.

Note: If you’re not a writing student, I suggest you keep your lead sentences at the beginning of the paragraph. It seems most non-writing teachers prefer solidarity to creativity. When you’re writing for someone else (read: for a grade), you have to cater to them.

For simplicity, we’ll say that there are two basic lead sentences with a few flavors for each: the paper-leader and the transition.

The Paper-Leader

Every paper has a beginning sentence, a lead sentence. This is the most crucial sentence in the whole paper. Can you guess the 2nd most crucial sentence, by the way? It’s the last. More on that elsewhere.

Your first sentence is so important that you really should write several (I have written almost 100 at times!) and choose the best. The average reader will only read the rest of your paper if the first sentence (and title!) interests him. Unfortunately for your teacher, he has to read the whole thing even if your first sentence is uninteresting. In a speech, the first sentence is called the attention getter. Your first sentence should be and do just that.

Because lists are easier to retain (and to use for re-checking facts), here’s a list of tips for writing a “Paper-Leader” lead sentence:

• If writing a review or biographical sketch, consider listing the who, what, when, where, why, and/or how. Give the reader the quick facts so that he knows what you’re talking about up front. Example: In his book, On Writing Well: the Classic Guide to Writing Nonfiction (New York, NY: HarperCollins, 2001), William Zinsser gives an overview of the components of good writing. (Book Review of On Writing Well)
• If writing a personal essay, consider what is the most interesting aspect of your topic and pique the reader’s curiosity with a question or statement. Example: I was the only kindergartner without a grandparent. (Adoption of Grandparents)
• Avoid cliche, general or blanket statements. Example: Everybody loves a good movie. [BORING! How about something more like "Kung Fu Panda destroys expectations and restyles the unique humor found in Dreamworks movies"? It's at least more interesting!]
• Be specific, be descriptive, be certain. Which North American country is soccer most popular in? How hard is it to be part of a national soccer team? Is the US women’s soccer team the best in the world, or isn’t it? We need to know that you know what you’re talking about. Example: Kopi Luwak is the most expensive coffee in the world: it costs on average $50 per cup to drink the coffee harvested from luwak feces.
• If you can’t think of how to start, try writing the point of your paper in one sentence. Just one! If you can find a way to phrase your point so that it is informative and interesting, you can use that as your lead sentence. Example: Writing lead sentences doesn’t have to be hard.

The Transition

The most common lead sentence is the transition. This is the humble little sentence at the beginning of every paragraph following the first in a standard paper. Though the Paper-Leader can be a bit dramatic, the Transition lead sentence tends to be completely utilitarian. It’s the link between the last paragraph and the next. Here’s the list of tips for the Transition lead sentence:

• Don’t summarize the previous paragraph. The last sentence of each paragraph is usually a summary, so you won’t need to re-summarize.
• The lead sentence MUST relate to the rest of the paragraph.
• You can refer to the previous paragraph to compare it to the point of the next paragraph. Example: Although some may be repulsed by the origin of Kopi Luwak, many coffee connoisseurs praise its flavor.
• See the list for The Paper Leader for more tips.

If this article has helped you, or if you have other questions about this topic, please let me know. Thanks!

Writer’s Toolbox

You want to be a real writer. Or maybe you just want better grades. But you don’t know where to start. It’s ok. I didn’t either. But I can tell you now one great way to start: build your toolbox.

Great writing doesn’t come naturally. It’s an art, a skill to be learned and refined. Every great writer has his own tools. Even if you just want to make it through college papers, you’ll need your own tools. You can pick up any of these cheaply at your nearest used bookstore, or at websites like half.com. Here are my suggestions:

Dictionary

The dictionary is an alphabetical listing of words and their meanings.

The dictionary has more uses than most people realize. Yeah, you can find the meaning of words you don’t know. That’s obvious. But would you think to use the dictionary to find history, alternate spellings, correct plural forms, grammar functions, and proper pronunciation of words? Some dictionaries even offer synonyms (words with similar meanings) and antonyms (opposites).

Merriam Webster is a classic dictionary. I recommend using http://merriam-webster.com . I keep a link in the side bar for your convenience.

Thesaurus

A thesaurus is a book of words and their synonyms grouped (usually) topically. The easiest way to find synonyms for a specific word is to use the index, which is usually listed alphabetically. The thesaurus is where I turn when I can’t think of a specific word, but I can think of one that’s either close or the opposite of it. I’ll look up what I know until I find the word I can’t remember.

You can also find a thesaurus on merriam-webster.com.

Grammar Handbook

A grammar handbook is the Grammarian’s how-to book. It will list and explain grammar terms and rules. Sometimes the rules are the grammarian’s preference, but usually they are tried-and-true ways to write well. There are hundreds and hundreds of grammar handbooks out there. If you’re a college student, your English teacher will probably recommend one.

There are thousands of writers’ self-help books. I recommend a few that I use. Used bookstores and libraries often carry several more that are worth checking out. You don’t have to own even one of these to be a great writer, but it is often helpful to read other writers’ suggestions.

When you have and know how to use these tools, you’re well on your way to improving your writing. The next step is: write!

If this article has helped you, or if you have other questions about this topic, please let me know. Thanks!

The Reason is Because

The word “reason” has fallen victim to redundancy. When we say “the reason is” we are about to state the cause of something, right? When we start the explanation with “because,” we’re doing the same thing. In fact, Merriam Webster uses the word “reason” to define “because.” So why do we often start our explanations with “the reason is because”?

The reason is because (oops!) that someone along the way forgot the meaning of the words and felt it was necessary. And because everyone will pick up the verbal habits of the people they talk to, the redundancy spread across the English speakers like mosquitoes in stagnant water.

To avoid redundancy, stick to either “the reason is that” or “because.”

If this article has helped you, or if you have other questions about this topic, please let me know. Thanks!

To comma or not

When making a list of items, a writer often uses the words “and” and “or” (conjunctions) before the last item in the list. No problems there. The debate comes with the placement of the final comma. Some Grammarians prefer two commas in a list of three items (for example); some prefer only one. The newer Grammarians seem to prefer the single comma. Example: fish, frogs, and fronds  vs.   fish, frogs and fronds The argument for a single comma is that the comma is used to replace the conjunction and is therefore redundant. You could write the above list as “fish and frogs and fronds,” but that can be a little too wordy for the reader. So instead we write “fish, frogs and fronds,” replacing the first “and” with a comma. We could write “fish, frogs, fronds,” but that doesn’t always read nicely. If you’re writing for a teacher or publication editor, you’ll need to find out that Grammarian’s preference. If you’re writing for your own amusement, pick the style you like best and stick with it.

If this article has helped you, or if you have other questions about this topic, please let me know. Thanks!